There are a lot of assumptions made regarding how Old School D&D was supposed to work. Most of these are based in a pseudo-Medieval, Tolkienesque, high fantasy sword & sorcery backdrop. But one can't help but notice certain other elements being drawn into the mix. The decisions of how the magic system functions, for example, is drawn from Vancian sources of science-fiction (the old fire-and-forget model of spell memorization). Such things were not part of English legends, Middle-earth, or Conan style gaming. Some rules had to be made wholecloth in order to "balance" the system for group play. This is why some character types are better at certain things than others. Players seeking a character to play that was able to do everything (or most things) very well were to be disappointed (and even discouraged). Only as a group can the game be enjoyed as it was meant to be, with every character in the game bringing something to the table.
Such limitations on the powers of the individual classes were further limited in what classes certain races were permitted to play (and how far they could advance in those classes). Players don't like to feel limited (in real life or their fantasy games), and this was one of the major reasons why later versions of D&D allowed all races to be all classes at unlimited advancement. But the balance reasons still exist, they've just changed. There are many strange decisions made by the game designers back in the day that don't seem to make much sense to me, and probably don't make much sense to a lot of people. We used the rules as written until such a time as our players began to balk at the restrictions that were holding them back or just plain didn't make sense.
One of these, in particular, is in regard to spellcasting. Now, one would say that the poor lowly magic-user has suffered enough abuse over the years. The ability at 1st level to cast a single spell doesn't really seem all that overpowering, but if they could survive to 5th level and gain the coveted lightning bolt or fireball spells, then they were a force to be reckoned with. But there were so many restrictions to these spellcasters that it really made it very hard to make it past 1st level! Unable to wear armor and unskilled in many weapons, the lowly prestidigitator was forced to make due with whatever spells his master kindly wrote in his spellbook (4 at 1st level, and no more). These spells were supposed to be generated at random from a list in the Dungeon Masters Guide. Then you were supposed to find a group of friends to enter the local dungeon with, and somehow survive several rooms of low-treasure-yield encounters, and possibly some random encounters which rarely (if ever) contain treasure, in order to get 2,501 experience points to make 2nd level and the ability to cast just one more spell. Assuming that you played your character well and did not complain overmuch about the lack of power and extreme danger you faced just going into the dungeon with your 1-4 hit points, then your bill for training would be 1,500 gp (so much for your ill-gotten gains). The system is meant to keep the characters lean and hungry for treasure by keeping them poor and preventing them from settling in one area for too long. Taxes, room and board, and training were the suggestions made to keep the players looking for new dungeons and treasure hoards. But with each expedition, the lowly magic-user faced mortality more so than the other classes. It was not blessed with martial prowess, the ability to heal its wounds, or even the ability to avoid detection or dodge attacks. Once a monster got in your face, your magic-user was likely dead unless you had a really soft Dungeon Master or your ability to twist probability could keep you alive long enough to run away!
Now, on top of these already significant hardships, one must take into account the preparation of spells. This was a further hardship heaped on the already beleaguered magic-user. According to the Player's Handbook, p. 25:
This spell book, and each book later added (as the magic-user advances in levels of ability, a book of spells for each higher level of spells which become usable will have to have been prepared through study and research), must be maintained by the magic-user. He or she must memorize and prepare for the use of each spell, and its casting makes it necessary to reabsorb the incantation by consulting the proper book of spells before it can again be cast.
Let's assume that your magic-user of 1st level is ready to go out into the world and make a name for himself. His spellcasting ability is tied to his spellbook - a randomly generated tome of 4 spells that the character begins the game with and must return to each morning to refresh his one spell each day. Let's generate a spellbook of 1st level spells by random rolls in the DMG p. 39. All magic-users know read magic (it's a given as one of the 4 spells one starts with), and random rolls result in the magic-user also knowing magic missile (offensive), hold portal (defensive), and a free choice for the miscellaneous spell (let's choose identify). So, every morning, the magic-user wakes after a restful sleep and prepares his one spell for the day from those listed above. He would be a fool NOT to memorize magic missile, as the others have limited usefulness in a dungeon (unless a specific area of the dungeon were being visited that required the use of such magic). Not every magic-user has the option of beginning with magic missile - I could have rolled push or sleep or burning hands. But these are the magic-user's only spell selections and he must deal with these until such time as he can locate or learn others.
Now, the lowly magic-user must have rested for a minimum of 4 hours before he can prepare his spell (DMG, p.40). Since we assume that he is beginning in a home base town, this assumption can be waived as most characters will get at least that amount with a full night's sleep. But what if the characters are trapped by a fallen portcullis in the dungeon and must rest there overnight to regain their strength before attempting to free themselves and escape to freedom? A spellbook is not something that you would want to take into a dungeon - there are too many dangers that could lead to the destruction of the tome and thus end your spellcasting career! Add to this the likelihood that the poor magic-user probably doesn't have the strength to lug such a tome around and still carry out treasure (or other necessities for dungeoneering), and one can see that the book is likely to be left behind in a safe location (home, locked inn room, etc.) and only referenced once the magic-user returned to safe home base. Later in the game, when the magic-user achieves 5th level, he would have to carry 3 large spell books to prepare his spells in the wilderness or if spending days in the dungeon (one for each level of spells he or she knows). Such a weight is likely beyond the magic-user to carry, but henchmen could be paid to do the heavy lifting. This takes money and charisma, something of which many magic-users have precious little.
Now let's take a look at memorization time. The established amount of time required to memorize each spell is 15 minutes/spell level. At 1st level, that one spell will take 15 minutes to prepare. At 2nd level, two 1st level spells will take 1/2 hour (3 turns) to prepare. At 3rd level, 2 1st level and 1 2nd level spell take 1 hour (6 turns) to prepare. And so on. Pity the poor 18th level magic-user who has to spend (5 x 15 minutes) + (5 x 30 minutes) + (5 x 45 minutes) + (5 x 60 minutes) + (5 x 75 minutes) + (3 x 90 minutes) + (3 x 105 minutes) + (2 x 120 minutes) + (1 x 135 minutes) = 1,985 minutes or a little over 33 hours preparing ALL his spells for the day. In essence, if an Archmage wants to wipe the slate clean and prepare all new spells, he needs about two days of prep time before he can even leave his wizard's tower! That's ridiculous! Sure, it's not so much a hardship at 1st-3rd levels, but once you get up in level and need to prepare or switch out all your spells for a certain situation, it becomes a major undertaking that other non-spellcasting classes don't have to worry about. Such an archmage would also need to lug around 9 spellbooks if an overland journey were taking place to even get to the dungeon, or else rely only on those spells in memory until they were all cast (and, by 18th level, one is assumed to have picked up a few potent magic items along the way so that one's spells are not the only source of one's powers).
Now let's look at the actual casting of spells. Spells are game cheats. They are magical ways of bending or breaking the rules of combat that other classes cannot do. For example, the magic missile spell hits without making an attack roll and cannot be dodged, deflected, or otherwise stopped from striking the target (with the exception of the shield spell or a brooch of shielding). Other spells, such as charm person, necessitate a saving throw vs. Spells in order for the target to fall victim to the effects. However, if the saving throw succeeds, nothing happens. Although such a wasted spell for a high-level magic-user is not much to worry about (they have other spells and magic items to resort to if need be), a saved-against spell is a catastrophe to a low-level magic-user who may only have one spell prepared for the day. Assuming then that this spell is wasted in the first encounter of the dungeon, that magic-user is now relegated to carrying a torch, watching the rear, or other non-combat functions (unless they have really good Dexterity and several throwing weapons).
Spells are also fairly easy to counter at low levels, or the damage is not as high as one would want. Take magic missile, for example. A great spell, fast to cast (1 segment) with no material components. So long as the magic-user can speak clearly and gesture with both hands free, they are likely to get the spell off in combat. However, the damage of the magic missile is only 2-5 hit points of damage. This is the equivalent of being struck by a magic light crossbow quarrel or a non-magical heavy crossbow quarrel. At 1st level, your one spell is now cast and you must remove from direct confrontation with melee combatants or else be targeted by attacks (and even a lowly dagger can end a magic-user's life with a single stroke). Some spells require material components to cast, and these must be fished from pockets and in hand while the spell is cast, resulting in a delay (a few segments to rounds). Some components are rather complicated, while others are simple. Our example magic-user from above needs to carry around a mineral prism for his read magic spell (which does not disappear once cast), and a 100 gp powdered pearl, owl feather, wine, and a live goldfish (miniature carp) for an identify spell. How many magic-users do you know carry such things into a dungeon? According to the rules as written, a magic item can only be identified with the identify spell, which has a low chance of success for a 1st level magic-user and must be performed within one hour after discovery of the magic item or else the readings become muddied. After casting identify, the magic-user loses 8 points of Constitution and this is recovered at the rate of 1 point per hour of rest. If their Constitution drops below 3, they fall unconscious for 24 hours when all their Constitution is restored. Obviously, the identify spell is not a good choice to take into the dungeon since it will not be useful unless the party locates a magic item and will debilitate the magic-user thereafter. How one is even supposed to be able to cast such a spell as written boggles the mind. However, the 1st-level magic-user above is most likely to select magic missile which has only verbal and somatic components, so there is nothing to worry about.
Now, players have complained for years about mid-level magic-users stealing the show from the other characters. I don't believe that a by-the-book magic-user is that much of a show-stealer. They have limited resources to draw from (limited spells per day), their spellcasting ability has little or nothing to do with their prime requisite ability of Intelligence (a 9 Intelligence or 18 Intelligence magic-user has the same number of spells per day and the same number of spells to draw from at 1st level). Compare this to a fighter whose higher Strength score nets them better ability to function in their class abilities to hit and damage monsters. Most low level spells are low-damage or a save negates; fighters only have to worry about overcoming Armor Class of their opponents to do damage. Fighters on average have twice the number of hit points that a magic-user has at 1st level, but will likely take several hits more than a magic-user in most circumstances. If using the "die at 0 hit points" rule from the Players Handbook, then both classes suffer similarly at lower levels, but if using the "die at -10 hit points" rule from the Dungeon Masters Guide, then magic-user's get a buffer that allows them to live beyond the first encounter more often than not, unless their entire party also falls. (Since the DMG was written after the PHB, it is assumed that the "die at -10 hp" is the de facto rule regarding death for player characters. Most DMs I know have monsters die at 0 hit points regardless, although NPCs could survive using the rule to -10 hp.)
So, the suppositions written into the rules regarding magic-users assume that most of them will not survive past 1st level, spells are very difficult to use in all situations equally, magic-users are meant as support characters not show-stealers, all character classes contribute what they can to the party dynamic, and spells are difficult and sometimes detrimental to cast. These assumptions are not spelled out plainly to the neophyte player who assumes that their wizard can lob fireballs ad nauseum from 1st level! The true power of the magic-user is not realized until they have achieved at least 5th level or higher and are not in danger of one-hit kills. Other classes have much better chances of survival or chances to avoid certain attacks. A magic-user has only his or her wits to combat the dangers they are likely to face in a dungeon - and not all of these are of the monster or trap variety. Keep in mind that the higher one's intelligence, the more languages are known. Taking certain languages for a low-level magic-user may make them more useful as a translator of spoken or written words. A high Charisma would also help magic-users in negotiations, outwitting their opponents by getting them to agree to terms that may seem beneficial by the fast-talking magic-user. Problem-solving was also a big component of old school gaming, and the higher intelligence of the magic-user makes them superb for overcoming such obstacles as tricks, riddles, or complex combat scenarios. The player may not know how to overcome such things, but the magic-user with a high intelligence should be given some hints even if the player has no idea. Intelligence checks on a d20 are what prompted the ability checks of later editions after all!
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